NetZeroCities

Fuel Cells (FC) are electrochemical devices that transform hydrogen and oxygen to obtain water and electrical power through an oxidation chemical reaction. FC are known as gas-to-power (or hydrogen-to-power) technologies. Unlike batteries, the reactive compounds are consumed continuously and produce electricity on-site:

Figure: gas-fuel cell that produces hydrogen instantaneously and produces el. and heat in residential units in Japan https://www.j-lpgas.gr.jp/en/appliances/

FCs are made of stacks that are formed by cells. The maximum generated electrical current and voltage depends on the cells and stacks configuration.
Usually, pure hydrogen obtained using previous reforming processes or electrolysis is supplied to the FC, whereas some types of them include the hydrogen generation process internally, allowing the use of fuels such as methanol or methane.
The applications of FCs are closely related to the operating temperatures and the availability of the reactive compounds. The predominant technologies in the market are:
• Proton-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC). Based on platinum compounds. Their working temperatures are under 150°C. High-purity hydrogen is needed. PMFCs allow quick variations in the generated power and a high number of stops and starts, which is positive, especially in transport applications.
• Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC). Based on zirconium and nickel elements. SOFC works at very high temperatures in the range of 900°C, which allows the direct use of methane. This technology is designed for stationary applications with a low number of stops and starts, such as power generation or building cogeneration. (Such as the one in Japan above).
• Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC). The operational temperature is in the range of 190-250°C, allowing the employment of certain reformed gases. The main application of PAFC is building cogeneration.
The costs of FCs technologies are high due to the low market penetration, being in the range of 2000 €/kW depending on the kind and size of the system. However, high growth rates in the development and adoption of FC are foreseen in the next years.

Climate and geography:

The climatic and geographic conditions of a region can affect the efficiency and performance of fuel cells in several ways. For example, extreme temperatures can decrease the efficiency of the electrochemical reaction inside the fuel cell, reducing the amount of electricity produced. Furthermore, the availability and cost of hydrogen in each region can also impact the feasibility and viability of using fuel cells on a large scale. Additionally, since the production of green hydrogen depends on the renewable generation and that, at the same time, depends on the climate conditions, the availability of hydrogen could be restricted in certain places or during certain seasons [1]

Technical aspects/infrastructure:

Adequate and reliable sources of hydrogen, such as renewable energy or natural gas with carbon capture and storage need to be implemented. A hydrogen supply and distribution network, including pipelines, trucking, and storage facilities[2]. In certain cases, DSOs and TSOs must approve the right to feed electricity into the distribution grid.

Policy and regulatory/legal framework:

Incentive programs and subsidies to reduce the upfront cost of fuel cell technology and encourage adoption by consumers and businesses. Policies that support the development of a hydrogen infrastructure, including production, distribution, and storage facilities. Availability of technical standards and regulations that ensure the safety, reliability, and performance of fuel cells and hydrogen systems. Programs and initiatives (e.g. in Spain PTE HPC, in Europe The Clean Hydrogen Join Undertaking partnership) that promote research and development of fuel cell technology and support innovation in the field. Public education and awareness campaigns to inform the public about the benefits and potential of fuel cells.

Economic and social context:

Competitive and affordable price for fuel cell technology, adequate funding and support for research and development, and public education and awareness programs. In addition, it is important to have policies and regulations that promote the deployment and integration of fuel cells into the energy system, and to ensure that the benefits of using fuel cells are shared equitably among different social groups.

Figure: The three members of the Clean Hydrogen Join Undertaking are the European Commission, fuel cell and hydrogen industries represented by Hydrogen Europe and the research community represented by Hydrogen Europe Research

[1] M. A. Salam et al., ‘Effect of Temperature on the Performance Factors and Durability of Proton Exchange Membrane of Hydrogen Fuel Cell: A Narrative Review’, Mater. Sci. Res. India, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 179–191, Sep. 2020, doi: 10.13005/msri/170210

[2] European Network of Transmission System Operators for Gas, Gas Infrastructure Europe, and Hydrogen Europe, ‘How to transport and store Hydrogen - Facts and Figures’, May 2021. [Online]. Available: https://entsog.eu/sites/default/files/2021-05/ENTSOG_GIE_HydrogenEurope_QandA_hydrogen_transport_and_storage_FINAL_0.pdf

While the massive implementation of fuel cells in cities can have many benefits, such as reducing emissions and improving air quality, there are also potential drawbacks and adverse impacts to consider. Some of the potential drawbacks and adverse impacts of a future massive implementation of fuel cells in cities include:

High upfront cost: Fuel cell technology is currently more expensive than other forms of energy generation, which can make it challenging for consumers and businesses to adopt. The usual range of cost for a FC is around 4000 €/kW, while the cost of a PV plant is around 1600 €/kW.
Dependence on hydrogen: Fuel cells rely on hydrogen as a fuel, which means that the widespread adoption of fuel cells could lead to increased demand for hydrogen production and infrastructure.
Safety concerns: Hydrogen is highly flammable and can pose safety risks if not handled properly. The large-scale deployment of fuel cells and hydrogen infrastructure could raise concerns about safety and accident prevention. However, if hydrogen is blended with a concentration less than 20%, that does not significantly affect gas quality, safety, risk, materials, and network capacity.[1].

Source: Deutscher Verein des Gas- und Wasserfaches (2013), Entwicklung von Modularen Konzepten zur Erzeugung, Speicherung und Einspeisung von Wasserstoff und Methan in Erdgasnetz.

Environmental impacts: While fuel cells do not produce greenhouse gas emissions when operating, the production of hydrogen from fossil fuels can result in emissions. In addition, the disposal of spent fuel cells can generate waste and pollution.
Socioeconomic impacts: The deployment of fuel cells and hydrogen infrastructure could have impacts on the economy and society, such as job creation and displacement, and changes in energy pricing and availability.

Overall, while fuel cells have the potential to play a key role in the transition to a clean energy future, it is important to carefully consider the potential drawbacks and adverse impacts of a massive implementation of fuel cells in cities.

Regarding specific case studies:

Ene.field project. The project brought together European micro FC-CHP manufacturers to deliver and monitor trials across all the European domestic heating markets, dwelling types and climatic zones. The project found that the two main aspects to be improved in the installation of FC are the running costs and the ease of use of the technology.
PACE-Energy project is aimed to unlock the large-scale European deployment of Fuel Cell micro-Cogeneration in private homes. In this case, the project found that the administrative procedure requested by some DSOs and TSOs may hinder the FCs implementation processes.

[1] M. J. Chae, J. H. Kim, B. Moon, S. Park, and Y. S. Lee, ‘The present condition and outlook for hydrogen-natural gas blending technology’, Korean J. Chem. Eng., vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 251–262, Feb. 2022, doi: 10.1007/s11814-021-0960-8

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