Reduce GHG emissions, since the reaction do not produce CO2 and the Hydrogen can be obtained using renewable sources. Due to the same reason,  it increases access to clean, affordable, and secure energy and contributes to decrease fossil-fuel dependency since availability of the fuel is not restricted to certain countries

Fuel cells are connected to: hydrogen production, gas-to-power technologies, 

Climate and geography:

The climatic and geographic conditions of a region can affect the efficiency and performance of fuel cells in several ways. For example, extreme temperatures can decrease the efficiency of the electrochemical reaction inside the fuel cell, reducing the amount of electricity produced. Furthermore, the availability and cost of hydrogen in each region can also impact the feasibility and viability of using fuel cells on a large scale. Additionally, since the production of green hydrogen depends on the renewable generation and that, at the same time, depends on the climate conditions, the availability of hydrogen could be restricted in certain places or during certain seasons [1]

Technical aspects/infrastructure:

Adequate and reliable sources of hydrogen, such as renewable energy or natural gas with carbon capture and storage need to be implemented. A hydrogen supply and distribution network, including pipelines, trucking, and storage facilities[2]. In certain cases, DSOs and TSOs must approve the right to feed electricity into the distribution grid.

Policy and regulatory/legal framework:

Incentive programs and subsidies to reduce the upfront cost of fuel cell technology and encourage adoption by consumers and businesses. Policies that support the development of a hydrogen infrastructure, including production, distribution, and storage facilities. Availability of technical standards and regulations that ensure the safety, reliability, and performance of fuel cells and hydrogen systems. Programs and initiatives (e.g. in Spain PTE HPC, in Europe The Clean Hydrogen Join Undertaking partnership) that promote research and development of fuel cell technology and support innovation in the field. Public education and awareness campaigns to inform the public about the benefits and potential of fuel cells.

Economic and social context:

Competitive and affordable price for fuel cell technology, adequate funding and support for research and development, and public education and awareness programs. In addition, it is important to have policies and regulations that promote the deployment and integration of fuel cells into the energy system, and to ensure that the benefits of using fuel cells are shared equitably among different social groups.

Figure: The three members of the Clean Hydrogen Join Undertaking are the European Commission, fuel cell and hydrogen industries represented by Hydrogen Europe and the research community represented by Hydrogen Europe Research

[1] M. A. Salam et al., ‘Effect of Temperature on the Performance Factors and Durability of Proton Exchange Membrane of Hydrogen Fuel Cell: A Narrative Review’, Mater. Sci. Res. India, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 179–191, Sep. 2020, doi: 10.13005/msri/170210

High cost of fuel cell technology compared to other forms of energy generation. The usual range of cost for a FC is around 4000 €/kW, while the cost of a PV plant is around 1600 €/kW[1]. This high cost is due to the high price of materials and the low production volume of fuel cells[2]. However, the cost is highly dependent on the nominal power of the FC.

Lack of infrastructure for the distribution and storage of hydrogen, which is the main fuel used in fuel cells, and the cost of introducing a new infrastructure in parallel to gas pipelines adapted to hydrogen. The refurbishment of natural gas pipelines to make them available to transport hydrogen without the need of constructing new ones is still under research.

Durability and performance of fuel cells, especially in extreme conditions [3]

Lack of public awareness and understanding of fuel cell technology, which can hinder the adoption of fuel cells by consumers and businesses.

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[1] P. Marocco et al., ‘A study of the techno-economic feasibility of H2-based energy storage systems in remote areas’, Energy Convers. Manag., vol. 211, p. 112768, May 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2020.112768.

[2] Electrocatalysis Consortium, ‘Accelerating the Deployment of Fuel Cell Systems’, PGM-free electrocatalysts for next-generation fuel cells and electrolyzers. https://www.electrocat.org/ (accessed Dec. 15, 2022).

[3] M. A. Salam et al., ‘Effect of Temperature on the Performance Factors and Durability of Proton Exchange Membrane of Hydrogen Fuel Cell: A Narrative Review’, Mater. Sci. Res. India, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 179–191, Sep. 2020, doi: 10.13005/msri/170210.

While the massive implementation of fuel cells in cities can have many benefits, such as reducing emissions and improving air quality, there are also potential drawbacks and adverse impacts to consider. Some of the potential drawbacks and adverse impacts of a future massive implementation of fuel cells in cities include:

• High upfront cost: Fuel cell technology is currently more expensive than other forms of energy generation, which can make it challenging for consumers and businesses to adopt. The usual range of cost for a FC is around 4000 €/kW, while the cost of a PV plant is around 1600 €/kW.
• Dependence on hydrogen: Fuel cells rely on hydrogen as a fuel, which means that the widespread adoption of fuel cells could lead to increased demand for hydrogen production and infrastructure.
• Safety concerns: Hydrogen is highly flammable and can pose safety risks if not handled properly. The large-scale deployment of fuel cells and hydrogen infrastructure could raise concerns about safety and accident prevention. However, if hydrogen is blended with a concentration less than 20%, that does not significantly affect gas quality, safety, risk, materials, and network capacity.[1].

Source: Deutscher Verein des Gas- und Wasserfaches (2013), Entwicklung von Modularen Konzepten zur Erzeugung, Speicherung und Einspeisung von Wasserstoff und Methan in Erdgasnetz.

• Environmental impacts: While fuel cells do not produce greenhouse gas emissions when operating, the production of hydrogen from fossil fuels can result in emissions. In addition, the disposal of spent fuel cells can generate waste and pollution.
• Socioeconomic impacts: The deployment of fuel cells and hydrogen infrastructure could have impacts on the economy and society, such as job creation and displacement, and changes in energy pricing and availability.

Overall, while fuel cells have the potential to play a key role in the transition to a clean energy future, it is important to carefully consider the potential drawbacks and adverse impacts of a massive implementation of fuel cells in cities.

Regarding specific case studies:

• Ene.field project. The project brought together European micro FC-CHP manufacturers to deliver and monitor trials across all the European domestic heating markets, dwelling types and climatic zones. The project found that the two main aspects to be improved in the installation of FC are the running costs and the ease of use of the technology.
• PACE-Energy project is aimed to unlock the large-scale European deployment of Fuel Cell micro-Cogeneration in private homes. In this case, the project found that the administrative procedure requested by some DSOs and TSOs may hinder the FCs implementation processes.

• https://pace-energy.eu/japan-a-success-story-in-deploying-fuel-cell-micro-cogeneration/
• http://www.hysafe.org/science/eAcademy/JSSFCH/.JSSFCH2012/SteinbergerWilckensR_AnIntroductionToFuelCells.pdf

Economic and social context:

The massive implementation of fuel cells in cities can have positive economic and social impacts, such as reducing reliance on fossil fuels, creating jobs in the clean energy sector, and improving air quality.

Ene.field project:

• GHG savings: 370 – 1100 kg CO2 per kW of micro-CHP per year
• Compared to a gas condensing boiler in a partially renovated semi-detached single-family home located in Germany, they found CO2 emission savings by a generic FC-µCHP system of 33%.
• Emission savings of between 45% and 50%, depending on the FC type, when the electricity production mix replaced is as carbon intensive as a hard coal fired power plant and the heat-led FC-µCHP systems run up to 5333 full load hours per year
• FC-µCHPs lead to 6-26% lower GHG emissions, 7-49% lower resource use, 21-65% lower particulate matter induced impacts, 25-73% lower acidification impacts and 54-118% lower water uses. The upper values usually correspond to new buildings located in southern Europe (low heat demand), while the lower values usually correspond to existing buildings located in northern Europe (high heat demand).

REMOTE project: 410 €/MWh unit cost for the fuel-cell-based H2 energy-storage in a power-to-power solution* over 10 years, compared to 864 €/MWh for a new 20-km cable connection to the grid.

*The Power-to-Power solution is the combination of Power-to-Gas (electrolyser to produce hydrogen and store it) and a Gas-to-Power (fuel cell consuming h2 from storage) technologies using hydrogen as energy storage system.

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